Bullet 3. In 1987, linguist Joseph Greenberg reduced these families into three: Eskimo-Aleut, Na-Dene, and Amerind. Greenberg saw the first two as distinct and separate from Amerind, and argued that they corresponded to different migrations into North America. A linguist in the academic sense is a person who studies natural language (an academic discipline known as linguistics).Ambiguously, the word is sometimes also used to refer to a polyglot (one who knows several languages), or a grammarian (a scholar of grammar), but these two uses of the word are distinct (and one does not have to be a polyglot in order to be an academic linguist).
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The information and advice on this page was written for FIS teachers in advance of the visit to the school of Professor J. Cummins. Cummins is one of the world’s leading authorities on bilingual education and second language acquisition. Mainstream teachers who have a knowledge of his theories and act on his advice will be in a much stronger position to help the ESL students in their classes.
1. BICS/CALP
Cummins makes the distinction between two differing kinds of language proficiency. BICSare Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills; these are the 'surface' skills oflistening and speaking which are typically acquired quickly by many students; particularlyby those from language backgrounds similar to English who spend a lot of their school timeinteracting with native speakers.
CALP is Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, and, as the name suggests, is thebasis for a child’s ability to cope with the academic demands placed upon her in thevarious subjects. Cummins states that while many children develop native speaker fluency(i.e. BICS) within two years of immersion in the target language, it takes between 5-7years for a child to be working on a level with native speakers as far as academiclanguage is concerned.
Implications for mainstream teachers
We should not assume that non-native speakers who have attained a high degree offluency and accuracy in everyday spoken English have the corresponding academic language proficiency. Thismay help us to avoid labelling children who exhibit this disparity as having specialeducational needs when all they need is more time. The non-native speakers in yourclasses, who have exited from the ESL program, are still, in most cases, in the process ofcatching up with their native speaking peers.
2. Common Underlying Proficiency
Briefly stated, Cummins believes that in the course of learning one language a childacquires a set of skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon whenworking in another language. This common underlying proficiency (CUP), as hecalls these skills and knowledge, is illustrated in the diagram below. It can be seen thatthe CUP provides the base for the development of both the first language (L1) and thesecond language (L2). It follows that any expansion of CUP that takes place in onelanguage will have a beneficial effect on the other language(s). This theory also serves toexplain why it becomes easier and easier to learn additional languages.
Implications for mainstream teachers
It is very important that students be encouraged to continue their native languagedevelopment. When parents ask about the best ways they can help their child at home, youcan reply that the child should have the opportunity to read extensively in her ownlanguage. You could suggest that parents make some time every evening to discuss withtheir child, in their native language, what she has done in school that day: askher to talk about the science experiment she did, question her about her understanding ofprimary and secondary sources of historical information, have her explain how she hassolved a math problem etc.
As Cummins (2000) states: 'Conceptual knowledge developed in one language helps tomake input in the other language comprehensible.' If a child already understands theconcepts of 'justice' or 'honesty' in her own language, all she has todo is acquire the label for these terms in English. Downie 3 0 3 download free. She has a far more difficult task,however, if she has to acquire both the label and the concept in her second language.
3. Task Difficulty
Cummins has devised a model whereby the different tasks we expect our students to engage in can be categorized. In the diagram below tasks range in difficulty along one continuum from cognitively undemanding to cognitively demanding; and along the other continuum from context-embedded to context-reduced. A context-embedded task is one in which the student has access to a range of additional visual and oral cues; for example he can look at illustrations of what is being talked about or ask questions to confirm understanding. A context-reduced task is one such as listening to a lecture or reading dense text, where there are no other sources of help than the language itself. Clearly, a D quadrant task, which is both cognitively demanding and context- reduced, is likely to be the most difficult for students, particularly for non-native speakers in their first years of learning English. However, it is essential that ESL students develop the ability to accomplish such tasks, since academic success is impossible without it. [More on this.]
Implications for mainstream teachers
If teachers have an awareness of the likely difficulty of a task, based on Cummins' model, they can judge its appropriateness for the non-native speakers in their classes and in this way avoid much frustration. This does not mean, however, that ESL students should be fed a diet of cognitively-undemanding tasks. It may be beneficial to use such activities in the student's early days at school, in order to build confidence, or as a lead in to a more challenging activity. However, teachers should switch soon to tasks that engage the students' brains, making these tasks accessible by providing visual or other support. Once students are comfortable with these kinds of activities, they can be gradually exposed to tasks that are both cognitively-demanding and context-reduced.
(For an interesting discussion of what happens whenteachers start with a D quadrant task and then have to modify it to avoid embarrassment andconfusion in the classroom, see the Mackay article listed in the references below.)
4. Additive/subtractive bilingualism
Cummins draws the distinction between additive bilingualism in which the first languagecontinues to be developed and the first culture to be valued while the second language isadded; and subtractive bilingualism in which the second language is added at the expenseof the first language and culture, which diminish as a consequence. Cummins (1994) quotesresearch which suggests students working in an additive bilingual environment succeed to agreater extent than those whose first language and culture are devalued by their schoolsand by the wider society.
Implications for mainstream teachers
The dangers of subtractive bilingualism for the non-native speakers in our school areobviously not so strong as, say, for the children of immigrants to the USA. Nevertheless,we should do all we can to demonstrate to non-native English students that their culturesand languages are equally as valid and valued as the Anglo/American culture and Englishlanguage that inevitably dominates FIS school life. Teachers and departments shouldexplore every possibility to incorporate the different cultural backgrounds of ourstudents into their daily teaching and curricula.
References
The summary above is based on the following articles or book extracts by Cummins orabout his theories. Please let me know if you would like copies (offer applies to FIS teachers only).
Baker, C. (1988) Key Issues in Bilingualism and Bilingual EducationClevedon: Multilingual Matters
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Collier, V. (1987) How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in asecond language. TESOL Quarterly, 23
Cummins, J. (1984) Bilingual Education and Special Education: Issues in Assessmentand Pedagogy San Diego: College Hill
Cummins, J. and McNeely, S. (1987) Language Development, Academic Learning , andEmpowering Minority Students. In Tikunoff, K. Bilingual Education and Bilingual SpecialEducation: A Guide for Administrators Boston: College Hill
Microsoft outlook 2019 vl v16 21 1 download free. Cummins, J. (1991) Language Development and Academic Learning Cummins, J in Malave, L.and Duquette, G. Language, Culture and Cognition Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pedgogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
Cummins, J. (1994) The Acquisition of English as a Second Language, inSpangenberg-Urbschat, K. and Pritchard, R. (eds) Reading Instruction for ESL Students Delaware:International Reading Association,
Eisterhold, J. (1990) Reading-Writing Connections: toward a description for secondlanguage learners. In Kroll, B. (ed) Second Language Writing: Research Insights for theClassroom Cambridge: CUP
Fradd, S. & McGee, P . (1994) Instructional Assessment: an integrative approachto evaluating student performance Reading: Addison Wesley
Mackay, R. (1991) Embarrassment and hygiene in the classroom ELT Journal 47/1Oxford: OUP